Meditations: Marcus Aurelius
PLATO ne apni kitaab The Republic me kaha ki
Jab tak raja philosopher nahi ban jaate ya philosopher raja nahi ban jaate, tab tak desh kabhi khush nahi ho sakte.
Kaha jaata hai ki Marcus Aurelius ko Plato ki is baat ko quote karna bahut pasand tha, aur jin logon ne unke baare mein likha hai, wo bhi aksar is baat ko Marcus par lagu karne se khud ko rok nahi paaye. Aur sach kahen toh agar hume Plato ka philosopher-king asli roop mein dekhna ho, toh Marcus se behtar koi nahi ho sakta — jo lagbhag bees saal tak Roman Empire ka raja tha aur immortal Meditations ka lekhak bhi. Lekin ye title Marcus khud kabhi accept nahi karta. Usne kabhi khud ko philosopher nahi maana. unke hisaab se wo sirf ek imaandaar student tha aur ek adhura sa follower, jo dusron ke banaye gaye philosophy ko follow karne ki koshish karta tha. Aur raja banna bhi unke liye ek tarah ka accident hi tha. Jab Marcus Annius Verus ka janm hua, A.D. 121 mein, toh log shayad yeh soch sakte the ki yeh Senate ya imperial administration mein achhi position tak jaayega. Lekin koi yeh nahi soch sakta tha ki yeh future mein emperor banega, ya phir us bronze wale ghode par baitha akela aadmi banega jiska haath aaj bhi Rome ke Capitoline hill par 2000 saal baad bhi logon ko greet karta hai.
Marcus ek achhi aur respected family se tha. unke janm ke saal unke dada doosri baar consul bane the, jo ki theoretically Rome ka sabse bada pad tha, lekin us waqt tak zyada ceremonial ban chuka tha. Aur unka palan-poshan bhi unke dada ne hi kiya, kyunki unke papa unke bachpan mein hi guzar gaye the. Meditations mein Marcus ne apne papa ke character ka zikr kiya hai — ya toh jitna usse yaad tha, ya doosron se suna tha. Lekin unka gyaan zyada kahaniyon ke zariye hi aaya hoga, na ki apni yaadon se. unke bachpan aur early teenage ke baare mein hume zyada kuch nahi pata, jo thoda bahut mila hai wo Meditations se hi milta hai. Historia Augusta mein likhi uski biography (jo ki ek ajeeb si aur unreliable kitaab hai, shaayad Marius Maximus ke likhe kuch khoye hue jeevan-vrutton par based hai) kehti hai ki Marcus ek serious bacha tha, lekin usse boxing, wrestling, running aur falconry bhi pasand thi, aur wo achha ballplayer bhi tha aur hunting ka bhi shaukeen tha. Ye sab kaafi aam cheezein hain ek upper-class ladke ke liye.
Meditations ke pehle chapter mein Marcus ke school life ki kuch jhalkein milti hain, aur baaki image hume us samay ke upper-class education ke baare mein general knowledge se milti hai. unke pehle teachers, jaise ki Meditations 1.5 mein unnamed teacher ka zikr hai, shayad slaves hi the, jinke through usne reading aur writing ki basic cheezein seekhi hongi. unke baad usse private tutors ke paas bheja gaya hoga jahan usne literature padha hoga — khas kar Vergil ki epic Aeneid. Lekin literature sirf ek preparation tha, asli goal tha rhetoric. Ye ek zaroori skill thi ek active political career ke liye empire ke neeche, jaise Republic ke time mein bhi thi. Ek trained rhetor ke under, Marcus ne pehle chhoti exercises se shuru kiya hoga, aur phir full-scale practice declamations kiye honge jisme use kisi imaginary law case ka ek side defend karna padta, ya kisi historical figure ko ek important moment par advice deni padti. (Kya Caesar ko Rubicon paar karna chahiye? Kya Alexander ko Indus par ruk jaana chahiye? Kyun ya kyun nahi?)
Ye training Latin ke saath-saath Greek mein bhi hoti thi. Pehle century B.C. se hi Roman upper class bilingual ban chuki thi, aur Marcus ka Greek bolna aur likhna utna hi fluent tha jitna kisi 19th-century Russian aristocrat ka French, ya ek Heian Japanese courtier ka Chinese. Marcus ne Homer ki Iliad aur Odyssey, Euripides ke tragedies ko Aeneid ke saath-saath padha hoga, aur Demosthenes jaise bade Athenian orator ke speeches ko waise hi seriously padha hoga jaise Cicero ke speeches ko. Capital mein intellectual elite mostly Greek writers aur artists hi the; aur jab Marcus apne court physician Galen se baat karta tha, toh wo bhi Greek mein hi hoti thi. Sabse zyada, philosophy ki language Greek hi thi. Late Republic aur early Empire ke time pe Lucretius, Cicero aur Seneca jaise writers ne Latin mein philosophy likhne ki koshish ki, aur kaafi had tak successful bhi hue. Lekin Plato, Aristotle, Theophrastus, Zeno, Chrysippus, Epicurus — ye sab Greek the. Serious philosophy padhne ke liye unki language aur unka banaya hua vocabulary samajhna zaroori tha. Isliye Marcus ka apni Meditations ko Greek mein likhna bilkul natural tha.
137 mein, jab Marcus sola saal ka tha, ek bahut important baat hui. Us time ke emperor Hadrian ke koi bachche nahi the. Pichle saal ek bimari ki wajah se wo lagbhag marne ke kareeb aa gaya tha, aur sabko lag gaya tha ki wo zyada din nahi jeeyega. Hadrian ko raja banne ka mauka mila tha kyunki unke pehle wale emperor Trajan (jo unka door ka rishtedaar tha) ne use adopt kiya tha. Trajan ke example ko follow karte hue, Hadrian ne ek mashhoor aristocrat Lucius Ceionius Commodus ko apna successor banaya tha. Lekin 137 mein Ceionius achanak mar gaya, aur Hadrian ko kisi naye successor ko chunna pada. Usne senator Antoninus ko chuna, jiske apne bhi koi bachche nahi the — lekin ek condition ke saath. Condition yeh thi ki Antoninus Marcus (jo unka rishtedaar tha) aur Ceionius ke bete Lucius Verus (jo us waqt sirf saat saal ka tha) — dono ko adopt kare. Phir Marcus ne apne adoptive father ka surname le liya, aur ban gaya Marcus Aurelius Antoninus.
Agle saal Hadrian ki death ke baad, Marcus throne ka pehla candidate ban gaya. Ab uski education aur chhote Verus ki education aur bhi important ho gayi, aur lagta hai ki koi kasar nahi chhodi gayi. Greek rhetoric ka training usse mila Herodes Atticus se — ek bohot ameer Athenian rhetorician, jiske apne parivaar, logon aur court ke saath kaafi drama bhare rishtay the, jaise koi soap opera ho. Latin oratory usne seekha Marcus Cornelius Fronto se — jo ki North Africa ke Cirta ka ek famous rhetorician tha. Kismat ka khel tha ki Fronto ke kaafi letters Marcus ke naam ke abhi tak bache hue hain, aur unse student aur teacher ke beech ka close bond dikhai deta hai. Wo letters yeh bhi dikhate hain ki Fronto thoda dukhi tha ki Marcus rhetoric se door ho raha tha aur philosophy mein aur gehra ja raha tha. Meditations ke pehle book mein Marcus ne un philosophers ka zikr kiya hai jinke saath usne formally ya informally seekha, aur lagta hai ki usne kai aur logon se bhi padha ya suna hoga.
Marcus ne classroom ke bahar bhi kaafi kuch seekha hoga. Legal aur political training ke liye, ek informal apprenticeship hota tha jisme young aristocrats ko bade public figures ke saath kaam karna padta tha — jaise Junius Rusticus, jiska influence Marcus ne 1.7 mein likha hai. Lekin sabse bada influence unke adoptive father Antoninus Pius ka tha. Marcus ne dekha hoga ki kaise Antoninus embassies se milta tha, legal cases sunta tha, aur apne officers ko letters dictate karta tha. Saath hi Marcus ka heir banne ka status bhi alag-alag tariko se dikhaya ja raha tha. 140 mein wo consul bana (sirf 19 saal ki umar mein), aur 145 mein fir bana. Usi saal usne Antoninus ki beti Faustina se shaadi ki, jiska zikr usne Meditations 1.17 mein kiya hai.
Edward Gibbon ki History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire mein Antoninus ke rule ko aise describe kiya gaya hai: “isme history ke liye bohot kam material milta hai, kyunki history zyadatar insano ke crimes, bewakoofi aur dukh bhare kaamon ka record hoti hai.” Marcus ki biography ke liye bhi uss period mein kuch khaas nahi milta. 145 se 161 ke beech ke derh dasak mein hume Marcus ki activities ke baare mein bahut kam pata chalta hai, aur unke andar kya chal raha tha wo sirf Fronto ke saath ki gayi uski chittiyon se hi samajh aata hai. Lekin do cheezein jo uski zindagi ko aage chalke define karne wali thi — court aur philosophy — wo is time tak poori tarah se uski life ka hissa ban chuki thi. Koi proof nahi hai ki Marcus ke saath kuch “conversion” type ka moment hua ho, jaise kuch purane logon ke saath hota tha (ya dikhaya jata tha), lekin ye clear hai ki 140s ke mid se late tak philosophy uski life ka main part ban gayi thi.
31 August, 161 ko Antoninus mar gaya, aur Marcus akela successor ban gaya. Marcus ne turant action liya aur shayad Hadrian ke original plan ko pura kiya (jo Antoninus ne ignore kiya ho), aur apne adoptive bhai Lucius Verus ko co-ruler banwa diya. Verus ka character Marcus ke mukable mein hamesha weak dikhaya gaya hai. Purani sources, especially gossip bhari Historia Augusta, usse ek aish-priy aur girta hua insaan dikhati hai — lagbhag ek aur Nero jaise. Shayad yeh sahi nahi hai; Meditations mein Marcus ne unke baare mein aisa kuch nahi kaha. Lekin itna toh lagta hi hai ki asli mein Marcus hi senior emperor tha, chahe naam se na ho. Aur ye surprising bhi nahi hai. Marcus Verus se lagbhag 10 saal bada tha, aur Antoninus ne khud use is role ke liye train kiya tha.
Ye philosopher-king kis tarah ka raja nikla? Shayad utna alag nahi jitna log soch rahe the. Emperor ke paas theoretically toh poora power hota tha, lekin asal mein unke paas policies control karne ki ability kaafi limited thi. unka zyada time un problems ko handle karne mein chala jaata jo lower levels se upar tak pahuch jaati thi: jaise empire ke bade cities se aayi embassies ko receive karna, criminal cases ke appeals sunna, provincial governors ke sawalon ka jawab dena, aur individual logon ki petitions ko dekhna. Imperial couriers ka system theek-thaak tha, lekin news empire ke kone se center tak pahuchne mein weeks lag jaate the; aur emperor ke orders bhi neeche tak pahuchne mein time lagta tha. Emperor ke decision ko law ka status milta tha, lekin usko enforce karna mostly provincial governors ke haath mein hota tha — aur unki mehnat kabhi unki hi incompetence, corruption, ya local elites ko naraz na karne ki ichha se affect ho sakti thi.
Kabhi-kabhi hume Marcus ke daily kaam dikh jaate hain imperial decisions ke through jo letters, inscriptions, aur legal codes mein bache hue hain. Jo laws bache hain, unse yeh dikhta hai ki usse slaves ko free karne mein interest tha aur orphans ke guardianship rules mein bhi. Kuch log kehte hain ki slaves wale rule Marcus ki philosophy se inspired the, aur orphans waale unke khud ke bina father ke bade hone ke experience se. Lekin yeh ab tak clear nahi hai ki yeh policies Marcus ke khud ke ideas the, ya unke pehle ke emperor Antoninus jaise hi the. Shayad sabse interesting baat yeh hai ki Marcus ke documents ke shabdon mein uski personality dikh jaati hai — jisme har detail ka dhyaan aur words ke istemal ko leke ek conscious effort dikhai deta hai, jo unke pehle ke emperors se alag lagta hai. Ye cheezein Meditations ke writer aur Fronto ke student se expect bhi ki ja sakti hain, jinke letters mein perfect word dhoondhne par bohot importance diya gaya hai.
Marcus ki ek priority thi Senate ke saath achhe relations banana. Goal yeh tha ki emperor ke absolute power ko thoda disguise kiya jaaye: ek image banayi jaaye — aur kabhi-kabhi sach mein bhi — jisme consensus aur cooperation dikhai de. 100 saal pehle tak aristocrats sochte the ki Republic wapas aayega (aur kuch toh sach mein chahte bhi the). Lekin second century tak sabko clear ho gaya tha ki principate ke alawa koi option nahi hai. Senate chahte the ki unki public mein respect ho aur peeche se unka influence bhi bana rahe; “achhe” emperors is game ko khushi se khelte the. Marcus ne jab upper classes ke saath relations strong kiye, toh wo Antoninus aur Trajan ke footsteps follow kar raha tha, na ki Hadrian ke, jiske Senate ke saath relations kaafi tense the. Aur isi wajah se, utni hi jitni kisi aur baat ki wajah se, Marcus ki image ek kind aur wise ruler ki bani. Jab tak emperor zinda hota hai, wo apni marzi se kuch bhi kar sakta hai, lekin last word unhi historians ka hota hai jo Senate se hote the — jaise Cornelius Tacitus ya Marcus ke baad ke generation ke Cassius Dio.
Ek aur area jahan Marcus ki policy unke pehle waalon jaise hi thi — wo thi ek chhoti aur ajeeb si sect ke khilaaf jise Christians kaha jaata tha. Agle century mein ye log empire ke liye aur bhi badi problem banne wale the, lekin Marcus ke time mein bhi ye itne noticeable ho gaye the ki ek insaan Celsus ne inke khilaaf ek lambi writing likhi — jiska kuch part “Against the Christians” ab bhi bacha hai. Intellectual log, jo inpe dhyan dete bhi the, unhe in logon se nafrat thi (Marcus ka teacher Fronto bhi shayad aise hi sochta tha), aur aam log aur administrators inse ya toh darte the ya inko pasand nahi karte the. Log in Christians se isliye bhi nafrat karte the kyunki ye un gods ko nahi maante the jinke naam pe society chalti thi. Unka “atheism” — yaani apne god ke alawa kisi aur ko na maanna — unke aas-paas ke logon aur khud unke liye danger ban gaya tha. Aur jab ye emperor ko divine nahi maante the, toh wo social order aur state ki stability ke liye bhi ek threat ban jaate the.
Christianity illegal tha early second century se, jab Pliny the Younger (jo us time Bithynia ka governor tha, Asia Minor mein) ne emperor Trajan se ek sawaal poocha, jiske baad Trajan ne ek official rule banaya: Christians ko dhoondhne ki zarurat nahi hai, lekin agar koi apne aap Christian hone ki baat maan le, toh use maar diya jaye. Lekin pure empire mein Christians ke against persecution kaafi baad mein start hua. Second century mein unke liye sabse bada threat local provincial governors the, jo ya toh apni marzi se ya local public ke pressure mein action lete the. Late 170s mein, jaise Lyons city mein danga hua, jisme Greek bolne wale Christians ko almost khatam hi kar diya gaya. Marcus ke teacher Junius Rusticus ne bhi Christians ko court mein try kiya aur phir execute kiya (Justin Martyr bhi inmein tha), jab wo city prefect tha. Marcus ko bhi Christianity ke baare mein pata tha, lekin lagta nahi ki ye topic unke dimaag mein zyada jagah leta tha. Meditations ke ek section (11.3) mein jo Christianity ka direct mention milta hai, wo shayad later add kiya gaya hissa hai, aur jo indirect hints kuch scholars ko lagte hain, wo bhi probably fake hain.
Marcus ke paas waise bhi aur zyada serious problems the is chhoti si troublesome cult se. Jaise hi wo emperor bana, Rome aur unke eklaute rival — East ka Parthian empire — ke beech relation suddenly bigad gaye. Trajan ke time se hi dono empires ek cold war mein locked the, jo har kuch generations mein military war ban jaata tha. Jab Antoninus mara aur naye, inexperienced rulers gaddi pe aaye, toh Parthian king Vologaeses III ne shayad is chance ka fayda uthana chaaha. 162 mein unke soldiers ne Armenia occupy kar liya aur ek Roman army jo help ke liye gayi thi usko destroy kar diya. Syria bhi danger mein aa gaya. Rome ko kuch karna hi tha.
Verus, jo chhota emperor tha, usko East bheja gaya, jahan wo agle 4 saal tak raha. Na unke paas, na Marcus ke paas koi military experience tha (kyunki Antoninus ka rule peaceful tha), isliye war ka actual kaam professional generals ne hi sambhala. Starting mein problems aayi, lekin baad mein Romans ne comeback kiya, aur young commander Avidius Cassius jaise logon ke lead mein Parthians ko shanti ke liye majboor kar diya. Parthia abhi bhi threat tha, lekin kuch time ke liye use diplomacy se handle kiya ja sakta tha.
Lekin Verus aur Marcus ko apni jeet enjoy karne ka time nahi mila. Ek saal ke andar empire ek terrible plague ke chakkar mein aa gaya, jo shayad Lucius ke soldiers East se le aaye the. Shayad unka effect itna apocalyptic nahi tha jitna baad ke writers ne likha, lekin log to bahut mare, aur iski wajah se dusri badi problem ka response delay ho gaya. Ye problem thi empire ke doosre side, north border pe badhti instability — jahan Rome ka samna ho raha tha Germany, eastern Europe aur Scandinavia ke barbarian logon se. Is time kai tribes North se pressure mein thi aur isliye wo Rome ke border cross kar rahi thi — conquest ke liye nahi, balki rehne ki jagah dhoondhne ke liye. Rome kabhi inka resistance karta, kabhi samjhauta. Lekin ek proper plan ki kami ne aakhir mein 3 centuries baad Western empire ko girne tak le gaya.
Kuch jagah pe toh border ko line se mark kiya gaya tha. Hadrian ki banayi hui wall, jo Britain mein bani thi, empire ke sabse door ke frontier ko secure karne ke liye thi; Antoninus ke time ek aur wall thodi aur north mein banayi gayi thi. Lekin mainland Europe mein aisi walls banani mushkil thi, aur wahi pe sabse zyada danger bhi tha. Rome ko abhi bhi A.D. 9 ki tragedy yaad thi, jab general Varus aur uski teen legions Germany ke jungle mein ghus gaye the aur kabhi wapas nahi aaye. Second century mein sabse zyada tension ka area tha thoda south — jo aaj ke Romania aur Hungary ke aas-paas ka hissa tha. Dacia ka area Trajan ne do generation pehle jeeta tha, jisne thodi der ke liye problem door ki thi, lekin risk ab bhi tha. Marcus ke time mein teen tribes sabse badi dikkat ban gaye the: Quadi, Marcomanni, aur Jazyges (ya Sarmatians). Teen Roman legions ko Parthia bhejne ki wajah se north border weak ho gaya tha, aur barbarians ne is chance ka fayda uthaya. 168 mein, Marcus aur Verus ne north march kiya inka saamna karne ke liye.
Baaki kaafi hissa Marcus ke rule ka chala gaya chhoti-chhoti ladaiyon mein — pehle early 170s ke Marcomannic Wars mein, aur fir usi decade ke end mein ek aur campaign mein. Aur is baar almost poora bojh Marcus ke upar tha, kyunki Verus 169 ke starting mein achanak mar gaya (shayd stroke se). Ye war pehle wali Verus ki campaign se bilkul alag thi. Jo military aur diplomatic tricks Parthians ke khilaaf kaam karti thi, wo yahan zyada useful nahi thi. Is baar Romans ko har ek chhote tribal leader se alag-alag negotiate karna padta tha, jinke paas khud apni limited power hoti thi, aur jinpe kabhi bharosa nahi kiya ja sakta tha. Jab baat-cheet fail hoti thi, tab ek ek karke chhoti-chhoti bloody fights ladni padti thi — koi bada open war nahi hota tha. Is poore campaign ka record Rome mein banayi gayi ek column par hai, jo Marcomannic Wars ke end ko yaad karta hai. Victory dikhane ke liye banayi gayi is monument pe bane scenes mein sirf brutal fighting, barbaadi aur executions dikhte hain. Marcus ne likha, “makdi flies ko pakad kar ghamand karti hai, aadmi rabbits, machhli, suar, bhalu, Sarmatians ko” (10.10). Meditations 8.34 ka starting scene — “kati hui haath ya pair, ya sir ka kata hua hissa” — ho sakta hai Marcus ke khud ke experience se inspired ho.
175 tak lag raha tha Romans jeet rahe hain. Lekin tab ek shocking news aayi. Avidius Cassius — jo Parthian war mein general ke roop mein shine kiya tha, aur ab Syria ka governor ban ke East empire ka almost ruler ban gaya tha — usne bagawat kar di aur khud ko emperor declare kar diya. East ke kuchh provinces (jaise Cappadocia) Marcus ke saath loyal rahe, lekin baaki pura East, especially Egypt, Cassius ko emperor maan raha tha. Egypt ka grain supply capital ke liye bohot important tha. Civil war almost tay thi, lekin Cassius ko unke hi ek aadmi ne maar diya, isiliye war tal gayi. Phir bhi Marcus ko East jaana pada apna control dikhane ke liye. unke saath Faustina bhi gayi, jo is journey ke dauraan mar gayi. Marcus ne East ke major cities jaise Antioch aur Alexandria ko visit kiya, aur finally Athens pahucha, jahan usne Eleusinian Mysteries ka part bana — ye ek secret religious ceremony thi jo Demeter, agriculture ki goddess, ko dedicate thi.
Ab Marcus pachaas ke upar ka ho gaya tha, aur uski health down jaa rahi thi. Cassius ki bagawat ne dikhaya ki succession plan banana zaroori hai. Faustina ne kam se kam 13 bacche paida kiye the, jinmein se zyada tar chhoti umar mein mar gaye. 170s ke middle tak Marcus ka sirf ek beta bacha tha — Commodus — jo tabhi apni teens mein enter kar raha tha. Marcus ke pehle ke emperors jaise adoption ka rule follow karne ka koi reason nahi tha, aur lagta bhi nahi ki usne aisa kuch socha. Agle kuch saalon mein Commodus ko fast-track promotion mila, aur wo emperor ke almost equal ban gaya. 177 mein, sirf pandrah saal ki umar mein, wo consul bana. Usi saal usko empire ke almost sabhi bade powers mil gaye — bas Pontifex Maximus ka post chhoda gaya, jo sirf ruling emperor ke paas hota tha aur life-time ke liye rehta tha.
Marcomannic Wars se jo jeet mili thi wo zyada der tak tik nahi payi, aur 178 mein Marcus aur Commodus dono fir se north march kiye. Do saal baad, Marcus mar gaya, 58 saal ki umar mein. Vespasian ke baad Marcus pehla emperor tha jisne apne bete ko gaddi di. Dukh ki baat ye hai ki Commodus ne wo umeedein puri nahi ki jo Marcus ne usme dekhi hongi. unka naam ek bigde hue tyrant ke roop mein yaad rakha gaya — ek doosra Caligula ya Nero, jiske flaws unke father ke noble image ke contrast mein aur zyada highlight ho gaye. unke bara saal ke rule ke baad uski hatya hui, jiske baad empire mein ek power struggle ka silsila shuru ho gaya, jo agle 100 saalon tak empire ko pareshan karta raha.